Terminology
How coinages are formed- The word formation process where a new word is created either deliberately or accidentally without using the other word formation processes and often from seemingly nothing. As neologism or coinage, we identify the word formation process of inventing entirely new words
Back formation- A word that is formed from an existing word which looks as though it is a derivative, typically by removal of a suffix
Affixations- Grammar. the process of inflection or derivation that consists of adding an affix
Compounding- A word that consists of more than one stem, compounding occurs when two or more words are joined to make one longer word.
Conversion- A kind of word formation involving the creation of a word (of a new word class) from an existing word (of a different word class) without any change in form
Norm dependant- Population which fully depend on the norms originally produced by the native speakers of the inner circle. They generally do not develop or reproduce 'Englishes'.
Aboriginal- The name given to the various kinds of English spoken by Aboriginal people throughout Australia. Technically, the language varieties are dialects of English.
Blending- Joining the beginning of one word and the end of another to make a new word.
Acronym- First letters are taken from a series of words to create a new word.
Eponym- Names of a person or company are used to define particular objects.
Initialism- The first letters from a series of words to form a new word but each letter is pronounced.
Clipping- Words are shortened and the shortened from becomes the norm.
EL1- English language first, meaning the primary language spoken
ESL- English Second Language
EFL- English Foreign Language
Theories for world Englishes
Kachru's Circle of English 1992-
The inner circle
The inner circle is made up of countries who are considered the 'traditional bases' of English, such as the U.K., U.S.A, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and anglophone Canada. English in these countries are classed as a 'first' language.
Kachru labels the inner circle countries as 'norm-providing' - the norms of the English language are produced there.
The outer circle
The outer circle is comprised of countries where English is not spoken natively but is still maintained as an important language for communication. These countries include: India, Nigeria, the Phillippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-anglophone South Africa and Canada.
The outer circle
The outer circle is comprised of countries where English is not spoken natively but is still maintained as an important language for communication. These countries include: India, Nigeria, the Phillippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Malaysia, Tanzania, Kenya, non-anglophone South Africa and Canada.
Kachru labels these countries as 'norm-developing' - the norms produced by the inner circle are further developed and reproduced in the outer circle.
The expanding circle
The expanding circle includes much of the rest of the world's population - countries that do not hold historical or governmental importance towards English, but class it as a foreign language or lingua franca. Main examples of such countries include: most of Europe, China, Russia, Japan, Korea, Egypt and Indonesia.
The expanding circle
The expanding circle includes much of the rest of the world's population - countries that do not hold historical or governmental importance towards English, but class it as a foreign language or lingua franca. Main examples of such countries include: most of Europe, China, Russia, Japan, Korea, Egypt and Indonesia.
These countries are 'norm-dependent' - they fully depend on the norms originally produced by the native speakers of the inner circle. They generally do not develop or reproduce 'Englishes'.
Five underlying principals underscore the Dynamic Model
1) The closer the contact (language contact) higher the degree of billingualism, multilingualism in a community, the stronger the effects of contact
2) The structural effects of language contact depend on social conditions. Therefore, history will play an important part.
3) Contact-induced changes can be achieved by a variety of mechanisms, from code switching (occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation) to code alternation to acquisition strategies (language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from second language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages).
4) Language evolution and the emergence of contact induced varieties can be regarded as speakers making selections from a pool of linguistic variants made available to them
5) Which features will be ultimately adopted depends on the complete 'ecology' of the contact situation, including factors such as demography, social relationships and surface similarities between languages
The Dynamic model outlines 5 major stages of the evolution of world englishes these stages will take perspectives from the two major parties of agents - settlers (STL) and indigenous residents (IDG)
Each stage is defined by four parameters:
1) Extra linguistic factors
2) Characteristic identity
3) Sociolinguistic determinants
4) Structural effects
Edgar Schneider's developmental stages for new varieties of English 2007-
Five underlying principals underscore the Dynamic Model
1) The closer the contact (language contact) higher the degree of billingualism, multilingualism in a community, the stronger the effects of contact
2) The structural effects of language contact depend on social conditions. Therefore, history will play an important part.
3) Contact-induced changes can be achieved by a variety of mechanisms, from code switching (occurs when a speaker alternates between two or more languages, or language varieties, in the context of a single conversation) to code alternation to acquisition strategies (language acquisition usually refers to first-language acquisition, which studies infants acquisition of their native language. This is distinguished from second language acquisition, which deals with the acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages).
4) Language evolution and the emergence of contact induced varieties can be regarded as speakers making selections from a pool of linguistic variants made available to them
5) Which features will be ultimately adopted depends on the complete 'ecology' of the contact situation, including factors such as demography, social relationships and surface similarities between languages
The Dynamic model outlines 5 major stages of the evolution of world englishes these stages will take perspectives from the two major parties of agents - settlers (STL) and indigenous residents (IDG)
Each stage is defined by four parameters:
1) Extra linguistic factors
2) Characteristic identity
3) Sociolinguistic determinants
4) Structural effects
